When the cell feels it's ready to go, it rips apart the chromosome.

Cell loss, mutations in chromosomes, mutations in the mitochondria and so on.

Every cell in your body (except mature red blood cells) there are about 50 trillion in an adult contains copies of your DNA, which are coiled up tightly to form 46 separate bundles called chromosomes. These chromosomes are stored in the core of the cell (nucleus), and there are 22 matching pairs, one of each pair from each of your biological parents, plus an X chromosome from your mother and either an X or Y chromosome from your father

Every cell in your body (except mature red blood cells) there are about 50 trillion in an adult contains copies of your DNA, which are coiled up tightly to form 46 separate bundles called chromosomes. These chromosomes are stored in the core of the cell (nucleus), and there are 22 matching pairs, one of each pair from each of your biological parents, plus an X chromosome from your mother and either an X or Y chromosome from your father XX makes you a girl and XY a boy.

Finally, not that long ago, Craig Venter created the first artificial cell, where he took a cell, took a DNA synthesizer, which is a machine, created an artificial genome, put it in a different cell the genome was not of the cell he put it in and that cell then reproduced as the other cell.

You can see areas where neuronal cell bodies are being stained.

And in that space station we have the genetic material, the chromosomes, within a nucleus.

We're here today to announce the first synthetic cell, a cell made by starting with the digital code in the computer, building the chromosome from four bottles of chemicals, assembling that chromosome in yeast, transplanting it into a recipient bacterial cell and transforming that cell into a new bacterial species.

As cell division begins the nucleus disintegrates, the chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell and those special proteins undergo a three dimensional sequence whereby they attach and they literally click into place end on end to form chains.

It's able to feel when the cell is ready, when the chromosome is correctly positioned.

Memory B cells turn into plasma cells, which produce wave after wave of the specific antibodies that latch onto HIV to prevent it from infecting cells, while squadrons of killer T cells seek out and destroy cells that are already HIV infected.

Fat derived stem cells are adult stem cells.

So all of those colored lines correspond to bunches of axons, the fibers that join cell bodies to synapses.

So what you see in the picture there is a cell with a hormone receptor in red punching through the edge of the cell.

But adult stem cells are not embryonic stem cells.

Carole Lartigue led the effort to actually transplant a bacterial chromosome from one bacteria to another.

So about a hundred years ago, some scientists invented a stain that would stain cells.

In order to preserve the human species, it would be preferable surely to use gene therapy with caution, restricting it to somatic cells (body cells excluding germ cells), to the exclusion of germ cells (i.e. the cells used for sexual reproduction).

We then grow the cells outside the body, take the scaffold, coat the scaffold with the cells the patient's own cells, two different cell types.

So, 10 times more bacterial cells than human cells on a human being.

So in addition to doing the transplant, we had to find out how to get a bacterial chromosome out of the eukaryotic yeast into a form where we could transplant it into a recipient cell.

Liver cells, nerve cells, pancreatic cells we still can't grow them even today.

My body's an accumulation of ideas too the idea of skin cells, the idea of brain cells, the idea of liver cells.

We also have adult stem cells throughout our body.

So, we thought the worst problem would be a single molecule contamination of the native chromosome, leading us to believe that we actually had created a synthetic cell, when it would have been just a contaminant.

It broadcasts through chemical signals telling the rest of the cell when it's ready, when it feels that everything is aligned and ready to go for the separation of the chromosomes.

We grow the cells outside the body in large quantities.

There is just too many things to go wrong.

The observation that stem cells, as master cells, could give rise to a whole variety of different cell types heart cells, liver cells, pancreatic islet cells captured the attention of the media and the imagination of the public.

Another example is the creation of hybridomas, hybrid cells created in the laboratory by fusing normal white blood cells that produce antibodies with a cancer cell. Researchers wanted to combine the cancer cells rapid growth and the normal cells ability to dictate the production of a single specific monoclonal antibody.

Human tissue is made up of cells.

The body cells have built themselves up into the same form.

The Y chromosome, the piece of DNA that makes men men, traces a purely paternal line of descent.

We had two teams working in parallel one team on the chemistry, and the other on trying to be able to transplant entire chromosomes to get new cells.

(e) Interleucine K obtaining high quality crystals of alpha 1 and beta 1 interleucines as well as of the interleucine 1 receptor antagonist.

These are just like the receptors on the surfaces of your cells.

(c) Sprut MBI determination of volumes of intra and extra cellular fluid, total circulating blood volume and the proportion of cellular and fluid blood components in the human body under conditions of weightlessness

When we did these experiments, though, we could get the chromosome out of yeast but it wouldn't transplant and boot up a cell.

The chromosomes line up.

Bottom right are the sex chromosomes.

They discovered that adult cells, taken from you and me, could be reprogrammed back into embryonic like cells, which they termed IPS cells, or induced pluripotent stem cells.

Just a preparatory injection... to get the old body cells going.

The way I suspect it will happen is using artificial chromosomes and extra chromosomes, so we go from 46 to 47 or 48.

As just a second example these pyramidal cells, large cells, they can span a significant fraction of the brain.

So this is a single chromosome.