This was evidence of resale price maintenance, which affects intrabrand competition and limits the right of the retailer to apply his own sale prices.

Wholesale prices followed trends similar to those of retail prices.

Growing use by retailers of own brands and discount retailing have also been driving prices down significantly.

In 2002, for example, China's retail market was worth 4,000 billion, larger than all non Japan Asian countries combined, and represented 5 per cent of worldwide retail sales.

The guidance price of RMB1,499 was RMB200 higher than the previous retail price of RMB1,299.

Cocaine seizures and retail prices in Europe, 1983 1994

4. Heroin seizures and retail prices in Europe, 1983 1994 6

9. Cocaine seizures and retail prices in Europe, 1983 1994 9

Retailers operating internationally can also resort to so called transfer pricing.

They operate at the margin between ex factory and wholesale and retail prices.

In the large scale retailing segment, domestic companies still dominate the market the three largest retailers are national firms controlling almost 60 per cent of the market.

In 2004, the retail market in Viet Nam was worth about 20 billion.

Figure 4. Heroin seizures and retail prices in Europe, 1983 1994

The European average real retail price of cocaine in 1994 was about 45 per cent of the 1983 price.

A review of the retail sector in the last 20 years has revealed that the rise of e commerce was similar to the emergence of discount retailers many years ago both were focused on price and convenience.

Consumer demand has been the main factor responsible for lower prices in retailing.

Large retailers may also engage in selling below cost and predatory pricing whereby prices are cut aggressively to force competitors to sell at a loss.

China s E Tail Revolution

Perhaps most important, current retail petrol prices are readily visible.

Retailers could exercise their power in setting prices at the local level.

Retail and wholesale prices of cocaine, in contrast, declined fairly steadily in a similar manner to those of heroin, as shown in figure 9.

With 15 million retail outlets, India has the highest retail outlet density in the world.

The process of opening the retail sector in China began in 1992 when foreign investment was allowed in retailing on a trial basis.

The retail sector includes two main types of retailers store and non store retailers.

Producers are also engaging in direct sales to consumers through on line retailing, bypassing retailers.

Sold at price starting from RMB828,000, it may be ordered at 4S stores now.

However, the retail price (price to the consumer) at stage (d) of the same 25 kilogram bag is 15 to 20.

Retail trade 353

Retailers are able to access and tap different cost structures in different countries and are becoming global.

Retail sales in the Russian Federation totalled 194.6 billion in 2004, with the distribution sector's contribution to GDP amounting to 22 per cent.

The mature character of the industry in developed countries, characterized by high competition and low profitability, as well as domestic regulation restricting large store development and hindering growth in the domestic market, has encouraged international strategies by major retailers.

Retail sellers of petrol in four Brazilian cities were prosecuted for price fixing agreements.

Foreign sales represent a significant share in total sales of the main European retailers.

The liberalization of the distribution sector in China has implied benefits for example, the development of different distribution formats, including specialty stores, the enhancement of local marketing and managerial capacity, and the possibility for domestic manufacturers to enter the international supply chain of foreign retailers (95 per cent of the products distributed by foreign retailers in China are locally sourced and foreign retailers export Chinese products abroad).

(d) Importation wholesale and retail businesses (foreign country).

The top 100 retailers (see table 3) account for 25 per cent of worldwide retailing sales.

Despite a broadband penetration rate of only 30 , e tail commanded 5 6 of total retail sales in China in 2012, on par with the US. And the sector is already profitable Chinese e tailers are logging margins of 8 10 of earnings before interest, taxes, and amortization, which is slightly larger than the average margin for physical retailers.

Now just hang on to me tonight... and you'll have a great time, and at retail prices.

Retail fuel dealers

Wholesale and retail trade

27. Retail and wholesale

The Commission sanctioned Panamco Tica by imposing a fine of 34,028,360 and compelled it to amend the relevant clauses in the contracts to specify that the price lists are merely recommended, and not compulsory, and that the price to be applied for resale is to be determined by the retailer.

In most countries, the retail sector has typically developed in three stages first, local or regional players dominate, before a smaller number of national companies takes over, with e tailers ultimately challenging traditional businesses. But China lacks national leaders, with the top five Chinese retailers in different product categories commanding less than 20 of the market, compared to up to 60 in the US.

The Euro Retailer Produce Working Group (EUREP) is a European based trade organization for retailers.

While the first operates fixed point of sale locations, non store retailers or retailers away from a fixed location reach customers and market merchandise with methods such as broadcasting infomercials , paper and electronic catalogues, door to door solicitation and selling from portable stalls.