For this fish, it's actually whole cells with nuclei and membranes.

And then this bubbling, this membrane bubbling, is the hallmark of apoptosis in this cell.

We take water and push it against a membrane.

But those bubbles have membranes very similar to the membrane of every cell of every living thing on Earth looks like, like this.

In its membrane, or its boundary, it contains little proteins that indeed can convert light into electricity.

They either pop the bacterial membrane, they make the bacterium so it can't replicate its DNA.

As we zoom in on one of these purple neurons, we see that its outer membrane is studded with microscopic pores.

And it sits in the membrane of the cell and it's got a pore in it.

And then we wonder why the membrane clogs and why it takes so much electricity.

We thought that maybe nitric oxide affected cell death, and how cells survive, and their resistance to other things.

And what MyoD essentially does is, it causes cells to differentiate into muscle cells. So this compound, MyoD, has been tested on a lot of different cell types and been shown to actually convert this variety of cell types into skeletal muscle cells.

We're pulling out, we're zooming out, out through a nuclear pore, which is the gateway to this compartment that holds all the DNA called the nucleus.

And then the transducer then makes the output cells send the code on up to the brain, and the result is a retinal prosthetic that can produce normal retinal output.

These membranes are also quite similar, morphologically and functionally, to the membranes in your body, and we can use these, as they say, to form the body of our protocell.

And in our lab, we are focused on taking fat and reprogramming mounds of fat into fountains of youthful cells cells that we may use to then form other, more specialized, cells, which one day may be used as cell transplants.

We take the scaffold, we seed it with cells, and you can now see here, the valve leaflets opening and closing.

Heart rates are slower you live longer diffusion of oxygen and resources across membranes is slower, etc.

It turns out, the DNA in the bacterial cell was actually methylated, and the methylation protects it from the restriction enzyme, from digesting the DNA.

So what happens when a person gets a retinal degenerative disease like macular degeneration? What happens is is that, the front end cells die, the photoreceptors die, and over time, all the cells and the circuits that are connected to them, they die too.

And I first off started work in cell culture, growing cells, and then I was using knockout mouse models mice that couldn't make the gene.

We're going to take these blue light photosensors and install them on a layer of cells in the middle of the retina in the back of the eye and convert them into a camera just like installing solar cells all over those neurons to make them light sensitive.

I saw the bouquet of bottle caps.

And they will either enter into this so called cellular suicide, programmed cell death, or they will form unhealthy daughter cells and enter into apoptosis once they have divided.

This little guy is called the kinesin, and he pulls a sack that's full of brand new manufactured proteins to wherever it's needed in the cell whether it's to a membrane, whether it's to an organelle, whether it's to build something or repair something.

And in the measure that we learn how chickens grow wings, and what the program is for those cells to differentiate, one of the things we're going to be able to do is to stop undifferentiated cells, which you know as cancer, and one of the things we're going to learn how to do is how to reprogram cells like stem cells in such a way that they express bone, stomach, skin, pancreas.

This is actually a heart valve that we've engineered, and you can see here, we have the structure of the heart valve and we've seeded that with cells, and then we exercise it.

The second protocell has a different chemistry inside, and when activated, the protocells all come together and they fuse into one big one. Right?

You see the cells coming back out.

Your cornea is excellent.

We see the movement from a general purpose cell to the more specific and specialized.

Memory B cells turn into plasma cells, which produce wave after wave of the specific antibodies that latch onto HIV to prevent it from infecting cells, while squadrons of killer T cells seek out and destroy cells that are already HIV infected.

So, I added these protocells together to the system, and protocell A and protocell B fused together to form a hybrid protocell AB.

Your cornea is terrific.

Start differentiating into effector and memory cells.

Synthetic biologists are manipulating it.

This is a normal cell. This is a cancer cell.

Embryonic stem cells have occupied center stage, chiefly because of their pluripotency that is their ease in differentiating into a variety of different cell types.

After HIV penetrates the body's mucosal barriers, it infects immune cells to replicate.

So one of the pioneers, for example, is Dr. Anthony Atala, and he has been working on layering cells to create body parts bladders, valves, kidneys.

Things in life start out being general cell, and they become specialized You have tissue cells, you have muscle, brain cells. And same things happens with say, a hammer, which is general at first and becomes more specific.

The observation that stem cells, as master cells, could give rise to a whole variety of different cell types heart cells, liver cells, pancreatic islet cells captured the attention of the media and the imagination of the public.

We then take the cells, the vascular cells, blood vessel cells, we perfuse the vascular tree with the patient's own cells.

There's a class of cells, a fairly small cell, an inhibitory cell, that quiets its neighbors.

They were, at that stage, much smaller and had an elongated shape that allowed them to slip between other cells. It came as a great surprise when we discovered that the cells giving birth to the new neurons were a type called radial glia, which were thought not to occur in adulthood and were not known to give birth to neurons.

Maybe tumor cells are being disguised as skeletal muscle cells, and this is why it seems as if it is so rare.