For this fish, it's actually whole cells with nuclei and membranes.

And then this bubbling, this membrane bubbling, is the hallmark of apoptosis in this cell.

We take water and push it against a membrane.

But those bubbles have membranes very similar to the membrane of every cell of every living thing on Earth looks like, like this.

They either pop the bacterial membrane, they make the bacterium so it can't replicate its DNA.

As we zoom in on one of these purple neurons, we see that its outer membrane is studded with microscopic pores.

And it sits in the membrane of the cell and it's got a pore in it.

And then we wonder why the membrane clogs and why it takes so much electricity.

We're pulling out, we're zooming out, out through a nuclear pore, which is the gateway to this compartment that holds all the DNA called the nucleus.

And then the transducer then makes the output cells send the code on up to the brain, and the result is a retinal prosthetic that can produce normal retinal output.

These membranes are also quite similar, morphologically and functionally, to the membranes in your body, and we can use these, as they say, to form the body of our protocell.

We take the scaffold, we seed it with cells, and you can now see here, the valve leaflets opening and closing.

Heart rates are slower you live longer diffusion of oxygen and resources across membranes is slower, etc.

So what happens when a person gets a retinal degenerative disease like macular degeneration? What happens is is that, the front end cells die, the photoreceptors die, and over time, all the cells and the circuits that are connected to them, they die too.

I saw the bouquet of bottle caps.

In its membrane, or its boundary, it contains little proteins that indeed can convert light into electricity.

This little guy is called the kinesin, and he pulls a sack that's full of brand new manufactured proteins to wherever it's needed in the cell whether it's to a membrane, whether it's to an organelle, whether it's to build something or repair something.

This is actually a heart valve that we've engineered, and you can see here, we have the structure of the heart valve and we've seeded that with cells, and then we exercise it.

So, I added these protocells together to the system, and protocell A and protocell B fused together to form a hybrid protocell AB.

This is a normal cell. This is a cancer cell.

After HIV penetrates the body's mucosal barriers, it infects immune cells to replicate.

So one of the pioneers, for example, is Dr. Anthony Atala, and he has been working on layering cells to create body parts bladders, valves, kidneys.

The observation that stem cells, as master cells, could give rise to a whole variety of different cell types heart cells, liver cells, pancreatic islet cells captured the attention of the media and the imagination of the public.

We then take the cells, the vascular cells, blood vessel cells, we perfuse the vascular tree with the patient's own cells.

There's a class of cells, a fairly small cell, an inhibitory cell, that quiets its neighbors.

We're made of cells and stuff between cells.

And all I wanted to show you is we can set up molecules in membranes, in real cells, and then it sets up a kind of molecular Darwinism, a molecular survival of the fittest.

In effect, the cancer cell was forgetting it was cancer and becoming a normal cell.

Fat derived stem cells are adult stem cells.

Cells?

And out in the cytoplasmic soup we have special proteins that are required for cell division that float freely in this soup in three dimensions.

But adult stem cells are not embryonic stem cells.

These are support cells astrocytes glia.

We then grow the cells outside the body, take the scaffold, coat the scaffold with the cells the patient's own cells, two different cell types.

Or we can use cells alone, either your very own cells or different stem cell populations.

Liver cells, nerve cells, pancreatic cells we still can't grow them even today.

My body's an accumulation of ideas too the idea of skin cells, the idea of brain cells, the idea of liver cells.

And the other part is on the inside where it sends signals into the cell.

A windpipe cell already knows it's a windpipe cell.

In many forms of blindness, like retinitis pigmentosa, or macular degeneration, the photoreceptor cells have atrophied or been destroyed.

We're going to take these blue light photosensors and install them on a layer of cells in the middle of the retina in the back of the eye and convert them into a camera just like installing solar cells all over those neurons to make them light sensitive.

So, a solution to the problem, then, would be to build a device that could mimic the actions of that front end circuitry and send signals to the retina's output cells, and they can go back to doing their normal job of sending signals to the brain.

They discovered that adult cells, taken from you and me, could be reprogrammed back into embryonic like cells, which they termed IPS cells, or induced pluripotent stem cells.

In order to preserve the human species, it would be preferable surely to use gene therapy with caution, restricting it to somatic cells (body cells excluding germ cells), to the exclusion of germ cells (i.e. the cells used for sexual reproduction).

We thought that maybe nitric oxide affected cell death, and how cells survive, and their resistance to other things.