Economic orthodoxy and development thinking has changed.

High definition, in our opinion, has become the new orthodoxy.

Indeed, some of the world traditions think very little of religious orthodoxy.

In the past, the Bank was seen as a purveyor of neoliberal orthodoxy an approach to development whose credibility had weakened by the time Wolfensohn arrived, and whose standing has eroded further since. That orthodoxy often went hand in hand with the national, corporate, and financial interests of the advanced industrial countries, or so it was perceived.

For hundreds of years, the prevailing orthodoxy, the accepted truth, was that God the Father, the Creator, is unchanging and therefore by definition cannot feel pain or sadness.

First, Xi s initiative shows the extent to which he dominates Chinese politics. A weaker leader could not have taken such an ambitious step, which represents a real break with past Communist orthodoxy.

Today, however, the reigning Republican orthodoxy is a kind of smug pseudo Friedmanism that believes that markets left to themselves can do no wrong. Perhaps it is time for another breath of fresh air.

The decline of free market orthodoxy in the rest of the world was caused by two factors its failures as an approach to economic policy and the decline of US prestige and soft power.

Soon after the bloody crackdown on Tiananmen, a new orthodoxy replaced Chinese Marxism Chinese nationalism. Only one party rule would guarantee the continuing rise of China and put an end to centuries of national humiliation.

In the Quran, religious opinion religious orthodoxy is dismissed as zanna self indulgent guesswork about matters that nobody can be certain of one way or the other, but which makes people quarrelsome and stupidly sectarian.

To prevent this, the report again usefully deviates from reigning orthodoxy, which tells countries to identify and copy best practices from abroad. This approach cannot succeed if such practices require what local government cannot deliver.

Those countries, like Australia, that implemented large, well designed stimulus programs early emerged from the crisis faster. Other countries succumbed to the old orthodoxy pushed by the financial wizards who got us into this mess.

For starters, economics teaching and research is deeply embedded in an institutional structure that, as with any ideological movement, rewards orthodoxy and penalizes heresy. The great classics of economics, from Smith to Ricardo to Veblen, go untaught.

This process, indeed, is echoed in the 22 Arab countries, where religious orthodoxy rules out any significant liberal political opposition. In such circumstances, the Mosque becomes the sole public space in which people can voice political views.

One difficulty with the British government s response is that it classifies all Muslims as just that Muslim. By defining people on the basis of their religion, nuances of national identity or of the degree of orthodoxy are lost.

Such values owe their origin to the original Confucianism of Confucius, Mencius, and Xunzi, which existed before Confucianism became established as state orthodoxy. In imperial times, the critical tradition was carried forward by such scholars as Huang Zongxi.

Orthodoxy has always upheld the sacred rights of the creditor political necessity has frequently demanded relief for the debtor. Which side wins in any situation depends on the extent of debtor distress and the strength of the opposing creditor debtor coalitions.

One cannot think of any natural science in which orthodoxy swings between two poles. What gives economics the appearance of a science is that its propositions can be expressed mathematically by abstracting from many decisive characteristics of the real world.

One cannot think of any natural science in which orthodoxy swings between two poles. What gives economics the appearance of a science is that its propositions can be expressed mathematically by abstracting from many decisive characteristics of the real world.

Obama s breach of Europe s intellectual insularity is all the more remarkable because even the International Monetary Fund has acquiesced in German imposed orthodoxy. As IMF Managing Director Christine Lagarde told the Irish Times A debt is a debt, and it is a contract.

Finally, those who view the Great Depression as fundamentally a product of tight fiscal policies and Treasury orthodoxy overlook the much greater culpability of a fixed exchange rate regime for the transmission of bad monetary policy, and thus for fueling the contraction.

In Brazil, President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva showed that significant departures from free market prescriptions worked better. Worldwide, most of the high growth countries of the 1990 s and 2000 s broke with free market orthodoxy by maintaining a stronger state hand in the economy.

If any  or all of this sounds familiar, it may be because I have been arguing much the same points for some time. If my experience is any guide, the members of the Hartwell group should expect to be attacked as heretics for questioning the Kyoto orthodoxy.

If any or all of this sounds familiar, it may be because I have been arguing much the same points for some time. If my experience is any guide, the members of the Hartwell group should expect to be attacked as heretics for questioning the Kyoto orthodoxy.

Those who believe that all was fine with the pre crisis economy except for banks making crazy loans are convinced that preventing such crises in the future requires only banking reform. The new reform orthodoxy is macro prudential regulation of commercial banks by the central bank.

Germany s reluctance to lead on these issues partly reflects historical inhibitions, which are always difficult to overcome. The persistence of pre Keynesian orthodoxy in German economic thought, with its moral abhorrence of the sin of borrowing (and thus its neglect of aggregate demand), does not help, either.

The new orthodoxy places its faith in regulators ability to improve on banks measurement of risk, while leaving the structure of the banking system unchanged. But, when it comes to upping equity requirements against risk weighted assets, who is to do the weighting, and according to what methodology?

In a sense, central banks have begun to resemble medieval philosophical faculties, with discussions addressing the issues underlying policy decisions, rather than just the policies themselves. In the ECB, for example, a debate is underway to determine under which conditions deviation from fiscal orthodoxy might be stabilizing in the long term.

Terrorist attacks in Saudi Arabia have led many to question not only the ruling House of Saud's prospects for survival, but also whether the kingdom is fundamentally dysfunctional and destructive. Somehow, it seems, Saudi society has produced a stream of violent fanaticism that draws its inspiration from extreme religious orthodoxy.

In choosing to allow One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich to be published, Khrushchev knew that he was undermining the entire Soviet era up to that point. But, with Khrushchev s overthrow in 1964, Leonid Brezhnev lost no time in restoring orthodoxy and purging books that threatened the Party s reputation.

The ideological vacuum left by the death of Marxist orthodoxy was filled with nationalism. And nationalism in China, promoted through schools, mass media, and patriotic monuments and museums, means one thing only the firm rule of the CCP will prevent foreigners, especially Westerners and the Japanese, from humiliating Chinese ever again.

This is not to say that the economic concept of politics is utterly strange to the Chinese or, for that matter, that the religious notion of politics is unknown in the democratic West. But the insistence on orthodoxy is still sufficiently strong in China to remain the default defense against political critics.

Orthodoxy rules out providing ECB support to a particular country, because this would violate the separation between monetary and fiscal policy The authority to commit public resources to the benefit of a particular country belongs exclusively to parliaments, not the central bank. But a wholesale purchase of government bonds does not raise similar concerns.

The old orthodoxy held that one had to cut the deficit raise taxes or cut expenditures to restore confidence. But those policies almost always reduced aggregate demand, pushed the economy into a deeper slump, and further undermined confidence  most recently when the International Monetary Fund insisted on them in East Asia in the 1990 s.

But the state s coffers are dangerously depleted, and France now finds itself among the many countries whose debt burden compromises the eurozone s existence. Thus, it is now subject to the discourse of economic orthodoxy, which, in insisting that all debts be paid to the penny, ignores that public spending is also an engine of growth.

The Prague Spring appealed to elementary values freedom, pluralism, tolerance, sovereignty, and rejection of the dictates of communist orthodoxy. When I recall these events after 40 years, I see not only revolt, but also the great illusion that it might be possible to outfox the Kremlin and painlessly move society from communism to democracy.

But, by changing its economic doctrine, Europe can improve its prospects considerably. Instead of remaining on the German led path of orthodoxy which, through counter productive austerity and deflation (forcing down domestic wages and prices), has turned stabilization into recession Europe must develop a growth based strategy to overcome the crisis once and for all.

The Salafis are defined in part by their strict theological orthodoxy. Their belief in the superiority of literal interpretations of Islamic texts and their deep animosity towards religious innovation (broadly defined) reflect their certainty that the first three generations of Muslims possessed the best understanding of Islam, and should provide guidance for future generations.

The old orthodoxy held that one had to cut the deficit raise taxes or cut expenditures to restore confidence. But those policies almost always reduced aggregate demand, pushed the economy into a deeper slump, and further undermined confidence most recently when the International Monetary Fund insisted on them in East Asia in the 1990 s.

Over the long term, however, US policymakers must make steady progress in restoring confidence in the nation s fiscal health by cutting politically sacred programs like social security, Medicare, and defense. Officials will have to put aside short term motives and party orthodoxy to bolster America s aging infrastructure, reform its education and immigration systems, and pursue long term fiscal consolidation.

Colonel Mathieu is the unsung hero of current counter insurgency orthodoxy, which requires a minimum military presence in the target country, mainly of intelligence agencies like the CIA and special forces. Through rendition, a captured suspect can be handed over to a friendly government to be tortured, and, on the basis of the information thus gathered, kill lists can be compiled.

He has indicated that, if elected, he would re negotiate the fiscal treaty and seek to alter the statutes of the European Central Bank perhaps as an early sign of willingness to break with European orthodoxy. He is also promising to emulate his predecessors by bringing Germany around to the French point of view that is, use German fiscal transfers.

In addition, the institutions created in the days following WWII no longer seem effective enough to meet the new challenges of the global economy, and thus have lost some of their legitimacy. For example, the IMF s authority has suffered in the recent decade especially in Asia from the fund s deep commitment to neo liberal orthodoxy and the so called Washington Consensus.

We call this a market plus policy. We would be glad to share our experience with others. What complicates life for the new or restored democracies is that current political orthodoxy calls for the downsizing of the State. Governments, including in the States we are discussing, are being urged to divest themselves of many activities which have been the preserve of the State.

This proposition overturned the previous Keynesian orthodoxy that macroeconomic policy should aim at full employment, with the control of inflation left to wage policy. Yet, despite all the supply side reforms introduced by Thatcherite governments, unemployment has been much higher since 1980 than in the 1950 s and 1960 s 7.4 on average in the United Kingdom, compared to 1.6 in the earlier decades.